BPTF Drives Gastric Cancer Resistance to EGFR Inhibitor by Epigenetically Regulating the C-MYC/PLCG1/Perk Axis.

Erlotinib, an EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor, is used for treating patients with cancer exhibiting EGFR overexpression or mutation. However, the response rate of erlotinib is low among patients with gastric cancer (GC). The findings of this study illustrated that the overexpression of bromodomain PHD finger transcription factor (BPTF) is partially responsible for erlotinib resistance in GC, and the combination of the BPTF inhibitor AU-1 with erlotinib synergistically inhibited tumor growth both in vivo and in vitro. AU-1 inhibited the epigenetic function of BPTF and decreased the transcriptional activity of c-MYC on PLCG1 by attenuating chromosome accessibility of the PLCG1 promoter region, thus decreasing the expression of p-PLCG1 and p-Erk and eventually improving the sensitivity of GC cells to erlotinib. In patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models, AU-1 monotherapy exhibited remarkable tumor-inhibiting activity and is synergistic anti-tumor effects when combined with erlotinib. Altogether, the findings illustrate that BPTF affects the responsiveness of GC to erlotinib by epigenetically regulating the c-MYC/PLCG1/pErk axis, and the combination of BPTF inhibitors and erlotinib is a viable therapeutic approach for GC.

Androgen receptor promotes cell stemness via interacting with co-factor YAP1 in gastric cancer.

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) have been proposed to explain tumor relapse and chemoresistance in various types of cancers, and androgen receptor (AR) has been emerged as a potential regulator of stemness in cancers. However, the underlying mechanism of AR-regulated CSCs properties and chemoresistance in gastric cancer (GC) remains unknown. Here, we shown that AR is upregulated in GC tissues and correlates with poor survival rate and CSCs phenotypes of GC patients. According to our experimental data, overexpression of AR upregulated the expression of CSCs markers and this was consistent with the result concluded from data analysis that the expression of AR was positively correlated with CD44 in GC patients. In addition, AR overexpression obviously enhanced the tumor sphere formation ability and chemoresistance of GC cells in vitro. Whereas these effects were attenuated by inhibition of AR. These results were further validated in vivo that MGC-803 cells overexpressing AR had stronger properties to initiate gastric tumorigenesis than the control cells, and inhibition of AR increased the chemosensitivity of GC cells. Mechanically, AR upregulated CD44 expression by directly binding to its promoter region and Yes-associated protein 1 (YAP1) served as the co-factor of AR, which was demonstrated by the fact that the promoting effects of AR on GC cells stemness were partially counteracted by YAP1 knockdown. Thus, this study revealed that AR facilitates CSCs properties and chemoresistance of GC cells via forming complex with YAP1and indicates a potential therapeutic approach to GC patients.

Cancer-associated fibroblasts impair the cytotoxic function of NK cells in gastric cancer by inducing ferroptosis via iron regulation.

As the predominant immunosuppressive component within the tumor microenvironment (TME), cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) inhibit Natural Killer cell (NK cell) activity to promote tumor progression and immune escape; however, the mechanisms of cross-talk between CAFs and NK cells in gastric cancer (GC) remain poorly understood. In this study, we demonstrate that NK cell levels are inversely correlated with CAFs abundance in human GC. CAFs impair the anti-tumor capacity of NK cells by inducing ferroptosis, a cell death process characterized by the accumulation of iron-dependent lipid peroxides. CAFs induce ferroptosis in NK cells by promoting iron overload; conversely, decreased intracellular iron levels protect NK cells against CAF-induced ferroptosis. Mechanistically, CAFs increase the labile iron pool within NK cells via iron export into the TME, which is mediated by the upregulated expression of iron regulatory genes ferroportin1 and hephaestin in CAFs. Moreover, CAF-derived follistatin like protein 1(FSTL1) upregulates NCOA4 expression in NK cells via the DIP2A-P38 pathway, and NCOA4-mediated ferritinophagy is required for CAF-induced NK cell ferroptosis. In a human patient-derived organoid model, functional targeting of CAFs using a combination of deferoxamine and FSTL1-neutralizing antibody significantly alleviate CAF-induced NK cell ferroptosis and boost the cytotoxicity of NK cells against GC. This study demonstrates a novel mechanism of suppression of NK cell activity by CAFs in the TME and presents a potential therapeutic approach to augment the immune response against GC mediated by NK cells.

VPS35 promotes cell proliferation via EGFR recycling and enhances EGFR inhibitors response in gastric cancer.

BACKGROUND: Vacuolar protein sorting-associated protein 35 (VPS35) is a core component of the retromer complex which mediates intracellular protein transport. It is well known that dysfunctional VPS35 functions in the accumulation of pathogenic proteins. In our previous study, VPS35 was found to be a potential gene related to poor prognosis in gastric cancer. However, the biological functions of VPS35 in gastric cancer remain unclear. METHODS: Cell viability assays were performed to examine whether VPS35 affected cell proliferation. Immunoprecipitation and biotin assays showed that VPS35 bound to epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in the cytoplasm and recycled it to the cell surface. Patient-derived xenografts and organoids were used to evaluate the effect of VPS35 on the response of gastric cancer to EGFR inhibitors. FINDINGS: VPS35 expression levels were upregulated in tumour tissues and correlated with local tumour invasion and poor survival in patients with gastric cancer. VPS35 promoted cell proliferation and increased tumour growth. Mechanistically, VPS35 selectively bound to endocytosed EGFR in early endosomes and recycled it back to the cell surface, leading to the downstream activation of the ERK1/2 pathway. We also found that high VPS35 expression levels increased the sensitivity of the xenograft and organoid models to EGFR inhibitors. INTERPRETATION: VPS35 promotes cell proliferation by recycling EGFR to the cell surface, amplifying the network of receptor trafficking. VPS35 expression levels are positively correlated with gastric cancer sensitivity to EGFR inhibitors, which offers a potential method to stratify patients for EGFR inhibitor utilisation. FUNDING: National Natural Science Foundation of China.

Calponin 1 increases cancer-associated fibroblasts-mediated matrix stiffness to promote chemoresistance in gastric cancer.

The mechanical microenvironment regulated by cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) influence tumor progression. Chemotherapeutic interventions including 5-Fluorouracil (5-Fu) are commonly used for primary treatment of patients with advanced gastric cancer (GC), and the development of acquired resistance to 5-Fu limits the clinical efficacy of these chemotherapies. However, if and how the interplay between CAFs and the mechanical microenvironment regulates GC response to 5-Fu is poorly understood. In this study, we demonstrate that high-level expression of calponin 1(CNN1) in gastric CAFs predicts poor clinical outcomes of GC patients, especially for those treated with 5-Fu. CNN1 knockdown in CAFs improves the effectiveness of 5-Fu in reducing tumor growth in a mouse GC model and confers increased sensitivity to 5-Fu in a 3D culture system. Furthermore, CNN1 knockdown impairs CAF contraction and reduces matrix stiffness without affecting the expression of matrix proteins. Mechanistically, CNN1 interacts with PDZ and LIM Domain 7 (PDLIM7) and prevents its degradation by the E3 ubiquitin ligase NEDD4-1, which leads to activation of the ROCK1/MLC pathway. The increased matrix stiffness, in turn, contributes to 5-Fu resistance in GC cells by activating YAP. Taken together, our data reveal a critical role of the mechanical microenvironment in 5-Fu resistance, which is modulated by CNN1hi CAFs-mediated matrix stiffening, indicating that targeting CAFs may provide a novel option for overcoming drug resistance in GC.

Identification of prognostic gene expression signatures based on the tumor microenvironment characterization of gastric cancer.

Increasing evidence has elucidated that the tumor microenvironment (TME) shows a strong association with tumor progression and therapeutic outcome. We comprehensively estimated the TME infiltration patterns of 111 gastric cancer (GC) and 21 normal stomach mucosa samples based on bulk transcriptomic profiles based on which GC could be clustered as three subtypes, TME-Stromal, TME-Mix, and TME-Immune. The expression data of TME-relevant genes were utilized to build a GC prognostic model-GC_Score. Among the three GC TME subtypes, TME-Stomal displayed the worst prognosis and the highest GC_Score, while TME-Immune had the best prognosis and the lowest GC_Score. Connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), the highest weighted gene in the GC_Score, was found to be overexpressed in GC. In addition, CTGF exhibited a significant correlation with the abundance of fibroblasts. CTGF has the potential to induce transdifferentiation of peritumoral fibroblasts (PTFs) to cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs). Beyond characterizing TME subtypes associated with clinical outcomes, we correlated TME infiltration to molecular features and explored their functional relevance, which helps to get a better understanding of carcinogenesis and therapeutic response and provide novel strategies for tumor treatments.

The cross-talk between tumor cells and activated fibroblasts mediated by lactate/BDNF/TrkB signaling promotes acquired resistance to anlotinib in human gastric cancer.

Acquired resistance to tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) is the major obstacle to improve clinical efficacy in cancer patients. The epithelial-stromal interaction in tumor microenvironment influences cancer drug response to TKIs. Anlotinib is a novel oral multi-targeted TKI, and has recently been proven to be effective and safe for several tumors. However, if and how the epithelial-stromal interaction in tumor microenvironment affects anlotinib response in gastric cancer (GC) is not known. In this study, we found that anlotinib inhibited GC cells growth by inducing GC cells apoptosis and G2/M phase arrest in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) mediated anlotinib-induced apoptosis in GC cells, while cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) significantly suppressed anlotinib-induced apoptosis and ROS in GC cells. Increased BDNF that was derived from CAFs activated TrkB-Nrf2 signaling in GC cells, and reduced GC cells response to anlotinib. We identified secreted lactate from GC cells as the key molecule instructing CAFs to produce BDNF in a NF-κB-dependent manner. Additionally, functional targeting BDNF-TrkB pathway with neutralizing antibodies against BDNF and TrkB increased the sensitivity of GC cells towards anlotinib in human patient-derived organoid (PDO) model. Taken together, these results characterize a critical role of the epithelial-stroma interaction mediated by the lactate/BDNF/TrkB signaling in GC anlotinib resistance, and provide a novel option to overcome drug resistance.

Tumor suppressor lnc-CTSLP4 inhibits EMT and metastasis of gastric cancer by attenuating HNRNPAB-dependent Snail transcription.

Tumor metastasis is a crucial impediment to the treatment of gastric cancer (GC), and the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) program plays a critical role for the initiation of GC metastasis. Thus, the aim of this study is to investigate the regulation of lnc-CTSLP4 in the EMT process during GC progression. We found that lnc-CTSLP4 was significantly downregulated in GC tumor tissues compared with adjacent non-tumor tissues, and its levels in GC tumor tissues were closely correlated with tumor local invasion, TNM stage, lymph node metastasis, and prognosis of GC patients. Loss- and gain-of-function assays indicated that lnc-CTSLP4 inhibited GC cell migration, invasion, and EMT in vitro, as well as peritoneal dissemination in vivo. Mechanistic analysis demonstrated that lnc-CTSLP4 could bind with Hsp90α/heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein AB (HNRNPAB) complex and recruit E3-ubiquitin ligase ZFP91 to induce the degradation of HNRNPAB, thus suppressing the transcriptional activation of Snail and ultimately reversing EMT of GC cells. Taken together, our results suggest that lnc-CTSLP4 is significantly downregulated in GC tumor tissues and inhibits metastatic potential of GC cells by attenuating HNRNPAB-dependent Snail transcription via interacting with Hsp90α and recruiting E3 ubiquitin ligase ZFP91, which shows that lnc-CTSLP4 could serve as a prognostic biomarker and therapeutic target for metastatic GC.

ATP5B promotes the metastasis and growth of gastric cancer by activating the FAK/AKT/MMP2 pathway.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in the tumor microenvironment serves a vital role during tumor progression. ATP synthase F1 ß subunit (ATP5B) is one of the most important subunits of ATP synthase and increases cellular ATP levels. ATP5B reportedly participates in carcinogenesis in several tumors. However, the regulatory mechanisms of ATP5B remain poorly understood in gastric cancer (GC). Here, we determined that high ATP5B expression in tumor tissues of GC is positively correlated with age, the tumor size, the TNM stage, lymph node metastasis, and patients' poor prognosis. The overexpression of ATP5B in GC cells elevated the cellular ATP content and promoted migration, invasion and proliferation. The levels of MMP2 expression, phosphorylated FAK, and phosphorylated AKT were increased after ATP5B overexpression in GC cells. Additionally, ATP5B overexpression increased the extracellular ATP level through the secretion of intracellular ATP and activated the FAK/AKT/MMP2 signaling pathway. ATP5B-induced downstream pathway activation was induced through the plasma membrane P2X7 receptor. Inhibitors of P2X7, FAK, AKT, and MMP2 suppressed the proliferative, migratory, and invasive capabilities of GC cells. In conclusion, our experiments indicate that ATP5B contributes to tumor progression of GC via FAK/AKT/MMP2 pathway. ATP5B, therefore, may be a biomarker of poor prognosis and a potential therapeutic target for GC.

Cathepsin L promotes angiogenesis by regulating the CDP/Cux/VEGF-D pathway in human gastric cancer.

BACKGROUND: Increasing evidence indicates that angiogenesis plays an important role in tumor progression. The function of cathepsin L (CTSL), an endosomal proteolytic enzyme, in promoting tumor metastasis is well recognized. The mechanisms by which CTSL has promoted the angiogenesis of gastric cancer (GC), however, remains unclear. METHODS: The nuclear expression levels of CTSL were assessed in GC samples. The effects of CTSL on GC angiogenesis were determined by endothelial tube formation analysis, HUVEC migration assay, and chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay. The involvement of the CDP/Cux/VEGF-D pathway was analyzed by angiogenesis antibody array, Western blot, co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) and dual-luciferase reporter assay. RESULTS: In this study, we found that the nuclear CTSL expression level in GC was significantly higher than that in adjacent nontumor gastric tissues and was a potential important clinical prognostic factor. Loss- and gain-of-function assays indicated that CTSL promotes the tubular formation and migration of HUVEC cells in vitro. The CAM assay also showed that CTSL promotes angiogenesis of GC in vivo. Mechanistic analysis demonstrated that CTSL can proteolytically process CDP/Cux and produce the physiologically relevant p110 isoform, which stably binds to VEGF-D and promotes the transcription of VEGF-D, thus contributing to the angiogenesis of GC. CONCLUSION: The findings of the present study suggested that CTSL plays a constructive role in the regulation of angiogenesis in human GC and could be a potential therapeutic target for GC.

The reciprocal interaction between tumor cells and activated fibroblasts mediated by TNF-α/IL-33/ST2L signaling promotes gastric cancer metastasis.

Gastric cancer (GC) is characterized by extensive local invasion, distant metastasis and poor prognosis. In most cases, GC progression is associated with aberrant expression of cytokines or activation of signaling cascades mediated by tumor-stroma interactions. However, the mechanisms by which these interactions contribute to GC progression are poorly understood. In this study, we find that IL-33 and its receptor ST2L are upregulated in the human GC and served as prognostic markers for poor survival of GC patients. In a co-culture model with GC cells and cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), we further demonstrate that CAFs-derived IL-33 enhances the migration and invasion of GC cells by inducing the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) through activation of the ERK1/2-SP1-ZEB2 pathway in a ST2L-dependent manner. Furthermore, the secretion of IL-33 by CAFs can be induced by the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α that is released by GC cells via TNFR2-NF-κB-IRF-1 pathway. Additionally, silencing of IL-33 expression in CAFs or ST2L expression in GC cells inhibits the peritoneal dissemination and metastatic potential of GC cells in nude mice. Taken together, these results characterize a critical role of the interaction between epithelial-stroma mediated by the TNF-α/IL-33/ST2L signaling in GC progression, and provide a rationale for targeting this pathway to treat GC metastasis.

Oncostatin M receptor, positively regulated by SP1, promotes gastric cancer growth and metastasis upon treatment with Oncostatin M.

BACKGROUND: Oncostatin M receptor (OSMR) is a member of the interleukin 6 (IL-6) receptor family that transduces signaling events of Oncostatin M (OSM). OSM-OSMR signaling plays a key role in inflammation and cancer progression. However, the role of OSM-OSMR in gastric cancer (GC) is still unknown. METHODS: OSMR expression in GC was determined by real-time PCR (RT-PCR), immunohistochemistry (IHC) and Western blot. The effects of OSM-OSMR on GC cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in vitro and metastasis in vivo were examined. The pathways underlying OSM-OSMR signaling were explored by Western blot. Regulatory mechanism between SP1 and OSMR was explored in vitro. RESULTS: OSMR was highly expressed in GC tissues and its expression level was closely associated with age, T stage, Lauren classification, lymph node metastasis, TNM stage and worse prognosis of patients with GC. Knockdown of OSMR expression in GC cells significantly inhibited cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and EMT in vitro, as well as tumorigenesis and peritoneal metastasis in vivo induced by OSM. These effects mediated by OSM-OSMR were dependent on the activation of STAT3/FAK/Src signaling. SP1 could bind to the promoter region of human OSMR gene from - 255 to - 246 bp, and transcriptionally regulated OSMR overexpression in GC cells. CONCLUSIONS: OSM-OSMR contributes to GC progression through activating STAT3/FAK/Src signaling, and OSMR is transcriptionally activated by SP1.

ALEX1, a novel tumor suppressor gene, inhibits gastric cancer metastasis via the PAR-1/Rho GTPase signaling pathway.

BACKGROUND: The ALEX is a novel member of the armadillo family and ALEX1 was reported to be reduced or even lost in multiple solid tumors. However, its expression profile and oncogenic role in gastric cancer (GC) remains largely unknown. METHODS: ALEX1 expression was detected in 161 GC samples by immunohistochemistry staining. NCI-N87 cells transfected by ALEX1 lentivirus vectors and MKN28 cells transfected by ALEX1 shRNA were used for biological function investigation. Western blot was applied to explore the molecular mechanism and pull-down assays were applied to measure the activity of Rho GTPases. In vivo tumorigenicity, peritoneal and lung metastasis experiments were performed by tumor cell engraftment into nude mice. Bisulfite genomic sequencing and methylation-specific PCR were applied to check the methylation status of the ALEX1 gene. RESULTS: The expression rate of ALEX1 was significantly reduced in gastric tumor samples compared to non-tumor samples (43.5 vs. 90.2%), and its expression was closely related to the tumor differentiation, TNM staging, and lymph nodes metastasis. ALEX1 overexpression in NCI-N87 cells significantly inhibited cell proliferation, migration, and invasion in vitro, and disrupted the structure of the cytoskeleton. ALEX1 overexpression attenuated xenografts growth, peritoneal, and lung metastasis in nude mice. Mechanistically, the overexpression of ALEX1 inhibits thrombin-induced metastasis and Rho GTPases activation. Bisulfite genomic sequencing and methylation-specific PCR revealed that the promoter of ALEX1 is highly methylated in GC cells and tissues. CONCLUSIONS: ALEX1 expression is reduced in GC and is involved in diverse cellular functions. ALEX1 inhibits metastasis through the PAR-1/Rho GTPase signaling pathway.

Cancer-associated fibroblast-derived Lumican promotes gastric cancer progression via the integrin ß1-FAK signaling pathway.

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most frequent malignant tumors worldwide and is associated with high invasiveness, high metastasis and poor prognosis. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), residing around tumor cells in tumor stroma, are important modifiers of tumor initiation and progression. However, the molecular mechanisms by which CAF's modulate tumor development have yet not to be characterized in GC. Here we performed tissue assay analyses identifying that Lumican, an extracellular matrix protein, is highly expressed in human gastric CAFs and its expression is positively associated with depth of invasion, lymph node metastasis, TNM stage and poor survival rate of GC. Functional studies revealed that integrin ß1-FAK signaling pathways mediate the promoting effect of Lumican on GC cell proliferation, migration and invasion in vitro. In accordance with these observations, in GC cells co-cultured with CAFs in which Lumican had been knocked down, decreased gastric tumor growth and metastasis in vivo was apparent. In summary, CAF-derived Lumican contributes to tumorigenesis and metastasis of GC by activating the integrin ß1-FAK signaling pathway.

Luteolin suppresses gastric cancer progression by reversing epithelial-mesenchymal transition via suppression of the Notch signaling pathway.

BACKGROUND: Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most malignant tumors and the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the world. Luteolin, a flavonoid present in many fruits and green plants, suppresses cancer progression. The effects of luteolin on GC cells and their underlying mechanisms remain unclear. METHODS: Effects of luteolin on cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and apoptosis were examined in vitro and in vivo by cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8), transwell assays, and flow cytometry, respectively. Real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blots were performed to evaluate Notch1 signaling and activation of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in GC cells treated with or without luteolin. Immunohistochemistry was performed to examine proliferation and Notch1 expression in xenograft tumors. RESULTS: Luteolin significantly inhibited cell proliferation, invasion, and migration in a dose-dependent and time-dependent manner and promoted cell apoptosis. Luteolin reversed EMT by shrinking the cytoskeleton and by inducing the expression of epithelial biomarker E-cadherin and downregulating the mesenchymal biomarkers N-cadherin, vimentin and Snail. Furthermore, Notch1 signaling was inhibited by luteolin, and downregulation of Notch1 had similar effects as luteolin treatment on cell proliferation, migration, and apoptosis. In addition, luteolin suppressed tumor growth in vivo. A higher expression of Notch1 correlated with a poor overall survival and a poor time to first progression. Furthermore, co-immunoprecipitation analysis revealed that activated Notch1 and ß-catenin formed a complex and regulated cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, GC progression was inhibited by luteolin through suppressing Notch1 signaling and reversing EMT, suggesting that luteolin may serve as an effective anti-tumor drug in GC treatment.

IL-6 secreted by cancer-associated fibroblasts promotes epithelial-mesenchymal transition and metastasis of gastric cancer via JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway.

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), as the activated fibroblasts in tumor stroma, are important modifiers of tumor progression. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the tumor-promoting properties of CAFs in gastric cancer remain unclear. Here, we show that CAFs isolated from gastric cancer produce significant amounts of interleukin-6 (IL-6). CAFs enhances the migration and EMT of gastric cancer cells through the secretion of IL-6 that activates Janus kinase 2/signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK2/STAT3) pathway in gastric cancer cells, while deprivation of IL-6 using a neutralizing antibody or inhibition of JAK/STAT3 pathway with specific inhibitor AG490 markedly attenuates these phenotypes in gastric cancer cells induced by CAFs. Moreover, silencing IL-6 expression in CAFs or inhibiting JAK2/STAT3 pathway in gastric cancer cells impairs tumor peritoneal metastasis induced by CAFs in vivo. Taken together, these results suggest that CAFs in the tumor microenvironment promote the progression of gastric cancer through IL-6/JAK2/STAT3 signaling, and IL-6 targeted therapy could be a complementary approach against gastric cancer by exerting their action on stromal fibroblasts.

TET1 inhibits gastric cancer growth and metastasis by PTEN demethylation and re-expression.

Ten-Eleven Translocation 1 (TET1) is a member of ten eleven translocation enzymes, which convert 5-methylcytosine (5-mC) to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5-hmC). TET1 can promote CpG islands demethylation in specific genes and often absent in various cancers. Herein, we found that TET1 expression and 5-hmC content were low in gastric tumors compared to its adjacent non-tumor tissues. Cell proliferation, migration and invasion were enhanced upon TET1 knockdown in gastric cancer cells in vitro. This phenomenon was confirmed by an animal xeongraft model. We also found that TET1 directly binds to the promoter region of PTEN and activates its transcription through demethylation of CpG islands. TET1 knockdown activated AKT and FAK pathways, which were suppressed by PTEN. The activation of AKT and FAK facilitated tumor migration, invasion and accelerated cell growth. In conclusion, we found a novel mechanism that TET1 suppresses tumor cell growth, migration and invasion through demethylation of CpG island in PTEN promoter by increasing 5-hmC content. The re-expressed PTEN subsequently down regulates AKT and FAK activity.

Tissue transglutaminase-2 promotes gastric cancer progression via the ERK1/2 pathway.

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common tumors worldwide and involves extensive local tumor invasion, metastasis, and poor prognosis. Understanding mechanisms regulating progression of GC is necessary for developing effective therapeutic strategies. Tissue transglutaminase-2 (TG2), a multifunctional member of the transglutaminase family, has been shown to be critical for tumor initiation and progression. However, how TG2 promotes the progression of GC is unknown. We report that TG2 was highly expressed in GC tissues and positively associated with depth of tumor invasion and late TNM stage. With gain- and loss-of-function approaches, we observed that TG2 promoted GC cell proliferation, migration, invasion, as well as tumorigenesis and peritoneal metastasis in vivo. These events were associated with the ERK1/2 pathway activation and an ERK1/2 inhibitor (U0126) inhibited cell proliferation, migration, and invasion induced by overexpression of TG2. In summary, TG2 contributes to tumorigenesis and progression of GC by activating the ERK1/2 signaling pathway and is a potential therapeutic target of metastatic gastric cancer.

The TLR7 agonist induces tumor regression both by promoting CD4⁺T cells proliferation and by reversing T regulatory cell-mediated suppression via dendritic cells.

Treg-induced immunosuppression is now recognized as a key element in enabling tumors to escape immune-mediated destruction. Although topical TLR7 therapies such as imiquimod have been proved successful in the treatment of dermatological malignancy and a number of conditions beyond the FDA-approved indications, the mechanism behind the effect of TLR7 on effector T cell and Treg cell function in cancer immunosurveillance is still not well understood. Here, we found that Loxoribin, one of the TLR7 ligands, could inhibit tumor growth in xenograft models of colon cancer and lung cancer, and these anti-tumor effects of Loxoribin were mediated by promoting CD4⁺T cell proliferation and reversing Treg-mediated suppression via dendritic cells (DCs). However, deprivation of IL-6 using a neutralizing antibody abrogated the ability of Loxoribin-treated DCs, which reversed the Treg cell-mediated suppression. Furthermore, adoptive transfer of Loxoribin-treated DCs inhibited the tumor growth in vivo. Thus, this study links TLR7 signaling to the functional control of effector T cells and Treg cells and identifies Loxoribin as a new therapeutic strategy in cancer treatment, which may offer new opportunities to improve the outcome of cancer immunotherapy.

Association between TLR4 (+896A/G and +1196C/T) polymorphisms and gastric cancer risk: an updated meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is a receptor of lipopolysaccharide in the signaling transduction of gastric epithelial cell. It plays a pivotal role in activation of innate immunity and pathogen recognition and thus acts as a modulator in the development and progression of gastric cancer. Growing studies explored the association of polymorphisms in TLR4 with susceptibility to gastric cancer, but the results have remained controversial and conflicting. To investigate the effect of two selected TLR4 (+896A/G and +1196C/T) polymorphisms on gastric cancer, we performed a meta-analysis. METHODS: A comprehensive search was conducted to identify all eligible case-control publications investigating the association between TLR4 polymorphisms and gastric cancer risk. Odds ratios (OR) and corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CI) were used to assess such association. RESULTS: Up to March 26 2014, 10 published case-control studies from PubMed and EMBase were available, involving a total of 1888 gastric cancer patients and 3433 control subjects. In the overall meta-analyses, a significantly increased gastric cancer risk was detected in TLR4 +896A/G polymorphism (heterozygous model, AG vs. AA: OR = 1.67, 95% CI, 1.39-2.01; additive model, G vs. A: OR = 1.64, 95% CI, 1.37-1.95) and TLR4 +1196C/T polymorphism (heterozygous model, CT vs. CC: OR = 1.42, 95% CI, 1.11-1.81; additive model, T vs. C: OR = 1.36, 95% CI, 1.08-1.72), similar results were obtained in the subgroup analyses of Caucasian, whereas no associations were detected in any genetic models of non-Caucasian. CONCLUSIONS: The overall results suggest that TLR4 polymorphisms (+896A/G and +1196C/T) may be associated with a significantly increased gastric cancer risk in Caucasian.